T for Third Language Acquisition

Is it the same to acquire a second language or a third language? Does the second language play a role in third language acquisition? Are we more expert learners if we have already learned a second language? These are fascinating questions taking into account that multilingualism is spread all over the world. This entry discusses the issues examined in third language acquisition in order to answer these questions.

What is third language acquisition?

The definition of TLA is a controversial one. TLA is the languages that were learnt after an L2, thus, it can define the acquisition of a third, fourth or fifth language as well (Safont Jorda, 2005). The acquisition of an L2 and that of an L3 share common characteristics, yet the latter is more complex due to the context of acquisition, variation in the order of learning the languages, the perceived distance between the languages involved, and the socio cultural status of the languages involved in the learning process (Cenoz, 2000).

How do we acquire the third language?

The cognitive and linguistic processes involved in TLA are similar to the ones used in SLA .Learning an L3 also differs from learning an L2 in the sense that L3 learners develop new skills, which are defined as language learning skills, language management skills and language maintenance skills (Herdina and Jessner, 2000). These skills contribute to more highly developed language awareness, or met linguistic awareness, which can be seen as the advantage that bilinguals develop due to contact with two language cultures. Met linguistic awareness refers to the awareness.

 

Prof. Salim Abu-Rabia and Ekaterina Sanitsky of the Department of Special Education, who conducted the study, set out to examine what benefits bilingualism might have in the process of learning a third language. They hypothesized that students who know two languages would have an easier time gaining command of a third language than would students who are fluent in only one language.

After comparing and merging the results of these tests, the researchers were able to conclude that those students whose mother tongue was Russian demonstrated higher proficiency not only in the new language, English, but also in Hebrew. They found that the total average between the tests of the two groups was above 13% in the Russian-speakers' favor. Some of the specific tests showed particularly wide gaps in command of English, the Russian speakers achieving the higher scores: in writing skills, there was a 20% gap between the scores; in orthographic ability, the gap reached up to 22%; and in morphology it soared as high as 35%. In the intelligence test, the gap was over 7% on the side of the Russian speakers. According to the researchers, these results show that the more languages a person learns, the higher his or her intelligence will be.

"Gaining command of a number of languages improves proficiency in native languages," Prof. Abu-Rabia explained. "This is because languages reinforce one another, and provide tools to strengthen phonologic, morphologic and syntactic skills. These skills provide the necessary basis for learning to read. Our study has also shown that applying language skills from one language to another is a critical cognitive function that makes it easier for an individual to go through the learning process successfully.

We can understand that there is a relationship between the previously learnt languages; the acquisition of an L3, based on the fact that positive transfer can happen from the L2 as well as from the L1. Every language that we learned is depended in the previous language except of the mother tongue. In addition it's easier to any person to acquire the third language than a person who wants to acquire the second language the because he has a lot of vocabulary that are similar to any language.

 

References

Cenoz, Jasone. 2000. Research on multilingual acquisition. In: Cenoz, Jasone and Ulrike Jessner, eds.

 English in Europe: The acquisition of a third language. Bilingual education and bilingualism. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters, 39–53.

Safont Jorda, Maria Pilar. 2005. Third language learners. Pragmatic Production and awareness. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.

Bilinguals find it easier to learn a third language, from universities, journals, and other organizations

 

 

 

 

R for Repetition

Hi everyone, 

Look at the presentation I have made for repetition. 

Enjoy! 

Karin Vaknin

http://www.slideshare.net/karinvaknin1809/repetition-presentation

Repetition Presentation from karinvaknin1809

I for Intake

בס"ד

What do we mean when we say Intake?

Many researchers claim that input is the key to learning a language.
Is that really so? Is Input enough? What guarantees that the learners soak in the input? Who says it is meaningful to them?

Well, many wondered about the gap between putting out information and the ability of learners to absorb it. Therefore, a new term was created to define that gap, called "Intake". The first one to coin the term was S. P. Corder in 1967. He realized that not all information that students are exposed to is actually taken in. Thus, there must be a distinction between the message we send across, the Input, and what the learners get from it, the Intake (Corder, 1967; Van Patten, Benati, 2010). Input, is the written and spoken language that learners are exposed to, while Intake is Input that has been noticed by the learner (Thornbury, 2006); Meaning that, not all Input eventually translates into Intake. That's why we, as teachers, must check and see what part of what we taught was taken in by the students, and what was left out.  Only that way we can take a step in the direction of meaningful learning.

It is important to mention that there have been two main claims regarding the form that the term Intake takes.
The first one, leaded by Corder (1967) and Chaudron (1985), suggests that Intake is a long, complex process, which includes a lot of decoding and encoding. They claimed that Intake is not just one simple action, but a sequence of acts that leads to noticing, then to an analysis of the Input, and lastly to storing the information.
The second approach says that Intake is a product or an object rather than a process. Meaning, Input is noticed by the learner and then being stored in their memory as is, turning by that into Intake, without being processed at all. (Sato, Jacobs, 1992; Van Patten, Benati, 2010).

From Input to Intake

So, if transforming Input into Intake is that significant to the learners' learning process, how can we help students to translate Input into Intake?

According to Sato and Jacobs (1992), the key is selective attention. The two linguistics claim that learning a language requires an access to relevant Input; this only can be accomplished by focusing the learners' attention on that specific input, thus, using selective attention.

If we could focus our students' attention on the main point we are trying to convey, most chances are that they will be able to assimilate it better and turn the Input into Intake easier and faster. Therefore, our goal, as teachers, should be to encourage our students to pay attention to the meaningful Input we are sending across by reducing irrelevant stimulations and background noises in our classrooms.

Bibliography:

          Chaudron, C. (1985). Intake: On models and methods for discovering learners' processing of input. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 7.  1-14.

          Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learners' errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 5. 161-170.

          Sato, E., Jacobs, B. (1992). From Input to Intake: Towards a Brain-Based Perspective of Selective Attention. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 3(2).

          Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts Used in English Language Teaching. Oxford, UK. : Macmillan Education. p.105-106

          VanPatten, B., Benati, A. G. (2010). Key Terms in Second Language Acquisition. London SE1 7NX, New York NY 10038.: Continuum International Publishing Group. p.98-99,

N for Native Speaker

Z is for ZPD - which is Zone of Proximal Development

ZPD – Zone of Proximal Development

One of the most essential and well known terms associated with Vygotsky's theory is "zone of proximal development"(ZPD). The term refers to the difference between the level of independent performance of a child and the level of his performance with assistance (Vygotsky, 1978). In other words, ZPD is the gap between the tasks a child can do on his or her own and the tasks he or she can do with support.

According to Vygotsky is the kind that is aimed not at the child’s level of independent performance but is instead aimed within the ZPD. This instruction does more than increase a child’s repertoire of skills and understandings and it actually produces gains in child development.

When connecting the zone proximal developing to language acquisition, we must refer to Vygotsky's concept. According to Vygotsky, there is an absolute connection and relations between language and thinking. Moreover, language affects thinking in a way that it shapes the cognitive developments such as perception, attentiveness and memorization, which are very essential for acquiring a language, especially second language acquisition (SLA). In addition, some relate the ZPD to other area such as Scaffolding and according to Thornbury,Scaffolding is what peers or teachers do to assist learners. Due to the fact that ZPD means assisted performance, the 'scaffolding' term is connected with the ZPD.

If teachers want to learn about the child's ability to perform, we should be aware of the gap between the level of independent performance and the levels of the performance with assistance  because the tasks he or she can do today -with the assistance of others (his teachers for example) – he or she will be able to perform tomorrow. On his or her own.

The ZPD focuses on the child's performances, with assistance and without it, this process leads us to learning. According to Thornbury (2006), learning is a social phenomenon that requires activity and interactivity that that is related to language. The concept of ZPD can be applied to the EFL classroom as follows: the class can be divided into groups and be given a task in which the pupils will deal with problem solving and collaboration (the independent performance of the child) while the teacher (the assistance) can help, advice and guide them (performance with assistance). This kind of activity is connected with task-based learning which looks very much like assisted performance. This will enable the pupils to perform the task someday on their own while acquiring a language.

References

Thornbury, S. (2006). An A-Z of ELT: A Dictionary of Terms and Concepts Used in English Language Teaching, Macmillan Books for Teachers. Macmillan Education Australia.

Vygotsky, L. (1978). Zone of Proximal Development: A New Approach. Mind in Society, Cambridge,   MA, Harvard University Press.

V for Vivian Cook's Multi-Competence

Vivian Cook’s Multi-competence

Multi-competence refers to the “knowledge of more than one language in the same mind” (Cook, 1995). It views a second-language learner as having a single mind consisting of his first language and his inter-language. The second language, however, does not exist in the learner’s mind and it is unrelated to his mind. The L1 and the inter-language are referred to as “multi-competence” and they are seen as having a relationship in the same mind. (Cook, 1995)

Cook (1995) argues that it is unfair and unproductive to compare L2 learners to native speakers since, by definition, L2 learners will never be able to become native speakers. Instead, L2 learners should be compared to L2 users: people who can meet their own needs by using the L2 successfully. The target of an L2 learner should be to become a successful L2 user and not to become a native-speaker.

Cook (1995) also shows that a multi-competent person has a different state of mind to a monolingual person. On many levels, people with more than one language function better than monolinguals because 1) the L1 is affected and 2) it leads to improved cognitive processes.

1) The L1 is affected

Just as the L1 affects the L2, so too does the L2 affect the L1 in various subtle ways, including vocabulary, pronunciation, syntax, gestures, and the things that are noticed. Research has shown that a person’s vocabulary in his L1 is influenced by the various languages he knows. For example, English children who were learning Italian had higher word awareness in English than children who were not taught another language. (Yelland, Pollard & Mercuri, 1993, as cited in Wikipedia) Also, multi-competent people have a different metalinguistic awareness compared to people who do not use an L2. (Cook, 1995) For instance, English speakers who have learned French evaluate the grammaticality of English sentences differently from English speakers who have not learned a second language. (Balcom, 1995, as cited in Wikipedia) French speakers who learned English as an L2 pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from French speakers who didn’t know a second language. (Flege, 1987, as cited in Wikipedia) Another study showed that when Chinese people who learned English looked at a fish tank, they were inclined to remember more fish and less plants than Chinese people who didn’t know a second language. (Cook, 2008) All this suggests that the different languages in a person’s mind are one connected system, rather than each language being a separate system. (Cook, 1995)

2) Cognitive processes are improved

L2 users also have different cognitive processes from monolinguals. Children who learn second languages score better on tests of creativity and cognitive flexibility. (Cook, 1995) The onset of Alzheimer’s disease is delayed by knowing another language (Bialystok, Craik, Klein & Viswanathan, 2004, as cited in Cook's website) and the areas of the brain responsible for control are developed. (Green, 2010, as cited in Cook's website)  Learning a second language also strengthens the connections in the corpus callosum area where the left and right hemispheres of the brain connect. (Coggins et al, 2004, as cited in Cook's website) All this suggests that someone who uses a second language is a different kind of person to someone who doesn’t use a second language. (Cook's website)

Implications for the classroom

Since it is unrealistic to compare L2 leaners to native speakers, school syllabuses should aim to make students effective users of second languages and not aim at having them imitate natives. Cook (2008) Before I learned about multi-competence I assumed that my aim as an ESL teacher was to have my students sound as native-like as possible. I will definitely take this perspective into account in my teaching.

Cook (2008) also argues that teaching materials should provide positive examples of L2 users. Showing successful L2 users could contribute to the motivation and confidence of the students. The text books used in the school in which I teach do comply with Cook’s suggestion.

Cook (2008) explains that because the first and second languages are one interconnected system that can never be separated in the mind, it should be acceptable to use the first language in the L2 classroom. Students will always use their first language in order to acquire their L2 and teachers should, therefore, make use of both languages in the classroom. I’ve always found that using the L1 to explain the meaning of a new lexical item is the most efficient method.

Cook (2002) also advocates for the use of non-native speaker teachers in the classroom. Students are more likely to identify with and be able to emulate non-native speaker teachers compared to native speaker teachers. Also, these teachers may be more sensitive to the difficulties faced by the students and can share their own experiences of learning the L2. Oops! As a native-speaker teacher, this is something I will have to be sensitive to. I feel that I can draw on my experience of learning two foreign languages in order to identify with any difficulties faced by my students.

I feel that Cook's idea of multi-competence is an interseting perspective on foreign language acquisition that empowers the L2 user by allowing him to not feel deficient compared to native-speakers.

References

Cook,V.J. (1995). Multi-competence and the learning of many languages. Language,

Culture and Curriculum, 8, 93–98.

Cook, V. J. (2002) (Ed.). Portrait of the language learner. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Cook, V.J. (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. 4th edition. London: Hodder Educational

Cook, V. J. (n.d.) Multicompetence. Retrieved from  http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/SLA/Multicompetence/index.htm

Wikipedia (2013, May 11). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-competence

E for Error Correction

Error correction is a term in SLA which refers to correcting the errors learners make while acquiring the target language.  The term is divided into two: "error" and "correction" and I'll start by looking at each. 

Error is an instance of the learners language that does not conform to accepted norms of usage, and which is attributed to incompetence- when a learner is in the early stages of acquiring a language or simply lacks aptitude,  or in case of faulty learning.

Errors and mistakes are often distinguished, when errors are caused by lack of competence and mistakes from demands of performance. In other words, errors occur when the learner doesn’t know a particular rule, while mistakes caused from lack of attention or speaking too fast, and can be self corrected (VanPatten and Benati, 2010).  

Errors can be categorized in a number of ways:

1. An error of omission- when an obligatory element is left out as in Is very hot.

2. An error of addition-   when a component of a sentence is added unnecessarily as in He made us to go.

3. A miss selection- where a wrong item has been used as in Men like fairs (for Gentlemen prefer blondes).

4. A miss formation- wrong form of the right word as in He is a good cooker.

5. A miss ordering error- when sentence components are in the wrong order as in I like very much football.

6. Transfer errors- as a result of the influence of the learners first language.

7. Errors due to the natural order of acquisition and overgeneralization- the application of the past tense- ed ending to verbs that are in fact irregular as in She buyed. 

8. Global errors- an error that affects the overall intelligibility of the message.

All of the above refers to pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar and discourse        (VanPatten and Benati, 2010). 

In the context of L2 learning, correction is a form of feedback when the teacher or another student provides the correct version of an error, spoken or written  (VanPatten and Benati, 2010). 

Feedback can be explicit, involving overt correction or comments about the general function of the learner, or implicit, using recast (Thornbury, 2006). 

There are different strategies to correct students; teachers usually choose the way to correct students according to their error. 

Many teachers often see errors as a result of bad habits, that's why they tend to correct them immediately (VanPatten and Benati, 2010). 

A common strategy of correcting students is recast, which is repetition of the error back to the learner in a corrected form. Though it's very common, many studies have shown that it's usually not effective. Having said that, it's very hard for a teacher to hear a mistake and not correct it, and this strategy, though not as effective as teachers would like it to be, is good because it's non- threatening   (Sheen, 2004).  

Other strategies are self correction or peer correction. Teachers use it when an error is natural in the development of the learner and where learners are credited with having the capacity to work things out themselves.

Other teachers feels like correction is de-motivating, therefore, they give feedback only when the learner is right (positive feedback) . This kind of feedback may be a contributing factor to errors because correction of some kind is necessary for accuracy and the development of language (VanPatten and Benati, 2010).  



In view of what I wrote above about errors and mistakes, and error correction, what do you think?

Do you understand the difference between errors and mistakes?

Do you think that teachers really apply different strategies of correction in class?

Should teachers use recast in class?

Share your thoughts!